5  Social Psychology: Puzzles that illustrate human behavior patterns and cognitive biases.

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5.1 Confirmation Bias

📖 Tendency to seek out information that confirms existing beliefs or hypotheses.

5.1.1 Problem

A group of people were asked to estimate the number of jelly beans in a jar. The estimates ranged from 200 to 1000. However, the actual number of jelly beans in the jar was 500. Why were the estimates so far off?

  • Hint:
    • Consider the tendency to seek out information that confirms existing beliefs or hypotheses.
  • Answer:
    • The people who made the estimates likely started with a preconceived notion of how many jelly beans they thought were in the jar. This preconceived notion may have been influenced by the size of the jar, the color of the jelly beans, or other factors. Once they had this preconceived notion, they tended to seek out information that confirmed it. For example, if they thought there were a lot of jelly beans in the jar, they may have focused on the larger jelly beans and ignored the smaller ones. This confirmation bias led to their estimates being far off from the actual number of jelly beans in the jar.

5.1.2 Problem

A study found that people who read positive news articles about a political candidate were more likely to vote for that candidate, even if the articles contained false information. Why is this?

  • Hint:
    • Consider the tendency to seek out information that confirms existing beliefs or hypotheses.
  • Answer:
    • The people who read the positive news articles about the political candidate likely already had a positive opinion of that candidate. This positive opinion may have been based on their own personal experiences with the candidate, or it may have been influenced by other factors, such as the candidate’s charisma or their stance on certain issues. Once they had this positive opinion, they tended to seek out information that confirmed it. For example, they may have focused on the positive aspects of the candidate’s policies and ignored the negative aspects. This confirmation bias led them to be more likely to vote for the candidate, even if the articles they read contained false information.

5.1.3 Problem

A group of people were asked to evaluate a new product. The product was either presented as being new and innovative, or as being similar to an existing product. The people who evaluated the product as being new and innovative gave it higher ratings, even though the two products were identical.

  • Hint:
    • Consider the tendency to seek out information that confirms existing beliefs or hypotheses.
  • Answer:
    • The people who evaluated the product as being new and innovative likely had higher expectations for it. This higher expectation may have been based on the fact that they believed the product was new and different, or it may have been influenced by other factors, such as the product’s packaging or marketing. Once they had this higher expectation, they tended to seek out information that confirmed it. For example, they may have focused on the positive aspects of the product and ignored the negative aspects. This confirmation bias led them to give the product higher ratings, even though it was identical to the existing product.

5.1.4 Problem

A group of people were asked to read a news article about a controversial topic. The article presented both sides of the issue, but the people who read the article only remembered the information that supported their existing beliefs.

  • Hint:
    • Consider the tendency to seek out information that confirms existing beliefs or hypotheses.
  • Answer:
    • The people who read the news article about the controversial topic likely already had an opinion on that topic. This opinion may have been based on their own personal experiences, or it may have been influenced by other factors, such as their political affiliation or their religious beliefs. Once they had this opinion, they tended to seek out information that confirmed it. For example, they may have focused on the information that supported their existing beliefs and ignored the information that contradicted them. This confirmation bias led them to only remember the information that supported their existing beliefs.

5.1.5 Problem

A group of people were asked to watch a video of a car accident. The video showed the car swerving to avoid a pedestrian, but the people who watched the video only remembered the car hitting the pedestrian.

  • Hint:
    • Consider the tendency to seek out information that confirms existing beliefs or hypotheses.
  • Answer:
    • The people who watched the video of the car accident likely had a preconceived notion that the car would hit the pedestrian. This preconceived notion may have been based on their own personal experiences with car accidents, or it may have been influenced by other factors, such as the way the video was edited or the way it was narrated. Once they had this preconceived notion, they tended to seek out information that confirmed it. For example, they may have focused on the moments leading up to the car hitting the pedestrian and ignored the moments when the car was swerving to avoid the pedestrian. This confirmation bias led them to only remember the car hitting the pedestrian.

5.2 Groupthink

📖 Phenomenon in which members of a group suppress dissenting viewpoints to achieve consensus.

5.2.1 Problem

In a group meeting, everyone enthusiastically agrees with a proposal. However, when the meeting ends and people go their separate ways, several individuals privately express their disagreement. What social psychology concept is at play here?

  • Hint:
    • Consider the influence of group dynamics on individual behavior.
  • Answer:
    • Groupthink

5.2.2 Problem

A team of researchers is working on a complex project. Despite having a diverse range of perspectives, they all end up reaching the same conclusion. What might be hindering their ability to generate original ideas?

  • Hint:
    • Think about the potential consequences of conforming to group norms.
  • Answer:
    • Groupthink

5.2.3 Problem

In a brainstorming session, a group of individuals refrains from sharing their unconventional ideas because they fear being judged by others. What is preventing these individuals from contributing their unique perspectives?

  • Hint:
    • Consider the role of social pressure in shaping individual behavior.
  • Answer:
    • Groupthink

5.2.4 Problem

A company’s leadership team consistently makes decisions that align with the opinions of the majority, even when there is clear evidence to suggest that alternative approaches may be more effective. What cognitive bias is influencing the team’s decision-making process?

  • Hint:
    • Think about the tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs.
  • Answer:
    • Confirmation bias

5.2.5 Problem

During a group discussion, one individual presents a well-reasoned argument that challenges the prevailing consensus. However, the rest of the group dismisses the individual’s argument without giving it proper consideration. What social psychology phenomenon is responsible for this behavior?

  • Hint:
    • Consider the tendency to reject information that contradicts strongly held beliefs.
  • Answer:
    • Cognitive dissonance

5.3 Hindsight Bias

📖 Tendency to believe that events that have already occurred were somehow predictable.

5.3.1 Problem

A man walks into a bar and asks for a glass of water. The bartender pulls out a gun and points it at the man. The man says ‘thank you’ and walks out. Why?

  • Hint:
    • Consider the man’s physical condition.
  • Answer:
    • The man had the hiccups, and the bartender’s action startled him, curing his hiccups.

5.3.2 Problem

A woman is found dead in her apartment. There is a glass of water next to her bed, an open window, and a newspaper on the floor. How did she die?

  • Hint:
    • Consider the position of the newspaper.
  • Answer:
    • She fell out of the window while reading the newspaper, and the wind blew the newspaper onto the floor.

5.3.3 Problem

A man is driving down the road when he sees a woman standing on the side of the road holding a sign that says ‘Purple Bananas - $2’. The man stops and buys a dozen bananas. He drives for a few more miles and sees another woman standing on the side of the road holding a sign that says ‘Green Bananas -$1’. The man turns around and goes back to the first woman and buys a dozen more bananas. Why?

  • Hint:
    • Consider the color of the bananas.
  • Answer:
    • The bananas are all green, but the first woman was lying about the color to sell them for a higher price.

5.3.4 Problem

A man goes into a restaurant and orders a steak. When the waiter brings the steak, the man sends it back because it’s too rare. The waiter takes the steak back to the kitchen and brings it back a few minutes later. Again, the man sends it back because it’s still too rare. The waiter takes the steak back to the kitchen and brings it back a third time. This time, the man eats the steak and leaves. Why?

  • Hint:
    • Consider the man’s profession.
  • Answer:
    • The man is a dentist, and he was using the steak to tenderize his dentures.

5.3.5 Problem

A woman is sitting in a rocking chair on her porch when a stranger walks up to her and says, ‘Your husband is dead’. The woman continues to rock back and forth in her chair and says nothing. The stranger repeats, ‘Your husband is dead’. Again, the woman says nothing. Finally, the stranger yells, ‘Your husband is dead!’, and the woman looks up and says, ‘Who are you?’. Why?

  • Hint:
    • Consider the woman’s relationship to her husband.
  • Answer:
    • The woman is deaf, and she thought the stranger was saying, ‘Your husband is deaf’.

5.4 Illusion of Control

📖 Tendency to overestimate one’s ability to influence the outcome of events.

5.4.1 Problem

In a study where individuals played a slot machine and occasionally received a small reward without actually doing anything, they eventually came to believe that their actions were influencing the outcome of the machine. What was this phenomenon called?

  • Hint:
    • The belief that one’s actions can influence random events even when they have no actual control over them.
  • Answer:
    • Illusion of Control

5.4.2 Problem

A participant in a psychological experiment consistently performs better on a task when they believe they have the choice of which task to complete. This belief, despite having no actual impact on their performance, is known as what?

  • Hint:
    • The perception of having influence over a situation, even when that influence is not real.
  • Answer:
    • Illusion of Control

5.4.3 Problem

People tend to believe that they are more skilled at driving than they actually are. This overestimation of one’s abilities is an example of the:

  • Hint:
    • The tendency to believe that one has more control over events than they actually do.
  • Answer:
    • Illusion of Control

5.4.4 Problem

In the realm of gambling, individuals often perceive patterns in random sequences of events, leading them to believe they can predict the outcome of future events. This tendency is known as:

  • Hint:
    • The perception of control over random or unpredictable situations.
  • Answer:
    • Illusion of Control

5.4.5 Problem

When people are presented with a series of positive outcomes, they tend to become more optimistic and confident about the future, despite the fact that external factors may not have changed. This phenomenon is referred to as:

  • Hint:
    • The tendency to overestimate one’s influence over future events based on positive past experiences.
  • Answer:
    • Illusion of Control

5.5 Social Facilitation

📖 Tendency for individuals to perform better on tasks when in the presence of others.

5.5.1 Problem

A group of students are gathered in a room, studying for an upcoming exam. One student is sitting quietly in the corner, while the others are talking and laughing. A teacher walks in and asks the student in the corner why he isn’t participating in the discussion. The student replies, “I’m not sure. I guess I’m just not as good at this as the others.” What is the reason for the student’s lack of participation?

  • Hint:
    • Consider the concept of social facilitation and how it can affect individual performance.
  • Answer:
    • The student is experiencing social inhibition, which is a decrease in performance on a task due to the presence of others. In this case, the student is inhibited by the presence of the other students who are talking and laughing, which makes him feel like he is not as good as them.

5.5.2 Problem

A group of people are working on a project together. One person is doing most of the work, while the others are just sitting around. The person who is doing all the work starts to get frustrated and asks the others why they aren’t helping. The others reply, “We’re just waiting for you to tell us what to do.” What is the reason for the others’ lack of motivation?

  • Hint:
    • Consider how social loafing can affect group performance.
  • Answer:
    • The others are experiencing social loafing, which is a decrease in individual effort on a task when working in a group. In this case, the others are loafing because they are waiting for the person who is doing all the work to tell them what to do. They are not motivated to work because they do not feel like they are contributing to the group’s success.

5.5.3 Problem

A group of people are playing a game. One person is winning, and the others are starting to get frustrated. The person who is winning starts to brag about how good they are, which makes the others even more frustrated. What is the reason for the others’ frustration?

  • Hint:
    • Consider the concept of social comparison theory and how it can affect individual emotions.
  • Answer:
    • The others are experiencing social comparison theory, which is the tendency to compare oneself to others in order to evaluate one’s own abilities. In this case, the others are comparing themselves to the person who is winning and finding that they are not as good. This makes them feel frustrated and angry.

5.5.4 Problem

A group of people are having a discussion. One person is dominating the conversation, and the others are just sitting back and listening. The person who is dominating the conversation starts to get bored, and the others start to get annoyed. What is the reason for the others’ annoyance?

  • Hint:
    • Consider how the bystander effect can affect group behavior.
  • Answer:
    • The others are experiencing the bystander effect, which is the tendency for people to be less likely to help someone in need when there are other people present. In this case, the others are annoyed because they are not helping to lead the conversation. They are waiting for someone else to take the lead, but no one is doing it.

5.5.5 Problem

A group of people are working on a project together. One person has a great idea, but they are afraid to share it with the group. The others are waiting for someone to come up with an idea, but no one is doing it. What is the reason for the group’s lack of progress?

  • Hint:
    • Consider how the diffusion of responsibility can affect group decision-making.
  • Answer:
    • The group is experiencing diffusion of responsibility, which is the tendency for people to feel less responsible for a task when they are working in a group. In this case, the group members are waiting for someone else to come up with an idea because they do not feel like they are responsible for doing it themselves.